While little more is known about this particular accident, one thing is certain: On a dark, hazy night over the ocean, with no stars or ground illumination, even a very experienced pilot may have a hard time keeping his aircraft right side up unless he is flying by instruments.
Sadly, the type of accident that claimed the life of Kennedy, his wife, and sister-in-law is not unique and is often preventable. A key ingredient in the aeronautical decision-making (ADM) training for all pilots is learning the critical skill of situational awareness.
Situational awareness involves an assessment and knowledge of three primary factors: the environment, the aircraft, and the pilot. When we venture into the darkness and enter the realm of night flight, each of these factors takes on new dimensions that are as different as, well, day and night.
The Night Environment
There's nothing out there at night that isn't there during the day. But what we can't see could hurt us, especially when it comes to the weather. During daylight hours, we can compare what we see in the sky to the forecast. If the picture and briefing match, our confidence in the advertised weather picture increases. If they don't match, we reassess the situation and return to our point of origin, divert, or land. At night, we can't see the weather as well as in full daylight, and our ability to make that all-important comparison between the forecast and actual conditions is greatly diminished. We can inadvertently fly into clouds and weather at night that are easily avoided during daylight hours.
To help compensate for this inability to see and compare, pilots flying at night must constantly gather weather information from whatever sources are available. Prerecorded information such as Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS) and Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS) are important sources of weather for night flights. Up-to-date observations and forecasts are available from the En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS), better known as flight watch, from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. local time. Pilots can gain weather trend information and insights from the Automated Surface Observation Systems (ASOS) and Automated Weather Observation Systems (AWOS) at airports along the route of flight. But even these tools have their limitations and it is important for the pilot to understand that he or she may not have a complete picture of a changing situation.
At the very least, weather can create distractions at night that take us by surprise. The flickering sparkle of strobe-illuminated snow or sudden blossoming of fog in the beam of a landing light are two examples of potential distractions waiting for the unwary night pilot.
Weather isn't the only environmental problem that could potentially plague night flyers. Visual illusions lie behind every cloud and can play mind-bending tricks on pilots of every experience level. If we let them, these illusions can cause us to misjudge distances between aircraft, to make abrupt maneuvers, and even to enter unusual attitudes at night.
One night, I was flying over the south shore of Long Island headed east toward Martha's Vineyard. It was a clear and moonless night with good visibility. I could see a fleet of fishing boats scattered across the ocean to the south, dotting the seascape out to the horizon with tiny white anchor lights. As I gazed out over the water, I noticed something. The light-riddled sea and star-studded sky merged, creating a powerful illusion that I was in a steep right bank. Had I not transitioned immediately to the instruments, I'm sure I would have rolled the aircraft into a steep left bank to compensate for the illusion.
The same illusion can occur over sparsely populated land areas where pinpoints of light cause the sky and ground to meld into an inky blackness devoid of any distinguishable horizon. A row of lights along a highway, shoreline, mountainside, or other natural feature can create a powerful illusion of a false horizon. Unless a pilot follows the guidance of his flight instruments, he can fly the aircraft into an unusual attitude by attempting to align the aircraft with the false horizon.
Seeing the lights of the destination airport is no guarantee that a pilot is free from the influence of visual illusions. A well-known visual illusion, referred to as the "black hole approach," occurs when an aircraft approaches an airport in an area that is otherwise sparsely lit. In this scenario, the pilot may lack the visual cues needed to accurately determine altitude or distance from the runway. A long, wide runway viewed from a distance may create the illusion of being on short final to a shorter, narrower runway. Thus the unwary pilot may make a premature descent when approaching a large runway at night. The black hole illusion is particularly strong on a straight-in approach over water or unlighted terrain. Bright runway lights and approach lighting systems can add to the effect. Always use runway visual glide path guidance such as VASI (visual approach slope indicator) or PAPI (precision approach path indicator), if one is available. Consult the appropriate Airport/Facility Directory in advance of the flight to determine the length and width of the destination runway, and plan your approach accordingly.
Other visual illusions can add to a pilot's already high nighttime workload. Atmospheric haze creates an illusion of increased distance from the runway. Flying into fog creates a false illusion of pitching up. Similar illusions can fool a pilot into descending when the lights of an airport emerge in the distance, and can even cause a pilot to prematurely initiate a descent and circling maneuver when flying an instrument approach.
The Aircraft
They say that familiarity breeds contempt, but when it comes to flying an airplane at night, nothing can take the place of an intimate familiarity with the cockpit, systems, and subtle nuances of the aircraft's operation. Of particular importance is knowing the cockpit layout cold. If it's difficult to locate controls and gauges during the day, it will be doubly difficult in a darkened cockpit-good panel lighting can be a big help here. Lack of familiarity with the cockpit layout or with the location and operation of all cockpit lighting have been cited as contributing factors in night accident reports. Fumbling in the dark can be a serious distraction that can help lead to spatial disorientation and vertigo.
The equipment complement for an aircraft is particularly important at night when the importance of both navigation and communication are elevated. Ideally, an aircraft should be IFR-equipped, even if the pilot is not instrument-rated. The equipment typically installed in an IFR aircraft, including dual navigation and communication receivers, can ease the pilot's workload.
An autopilot-if you know how to properly use it-can be a significant aid at times of high mental workload, such as during a night flight. An autopilot can help keep the shiny side up when we struggle with marginal visibility and visual illusions, or when we need to watch for traffic or read a chart. But an autopilot won't cure all of our ills either. When a vacuum system or gyro instrument fails, the autopilot can be as useless as a solar-powered flashlight. If the pilot doesn't take control, the autopilot will fly the aircraft into the ground as quickly as a pilot with vertigo.
Performing a preflight at night is more difficult than during the day. Minor problems are harder to detect and can be more easily overlooked on a night preflight (see Night Flight Preflight below). Take the time to be thorough when preflighting at night, and use a strong flashlight. Even minor malfunctions can be stressful and confusing at night. Be prepared by having an in-depth knowledge of the airplane's systems, as well as emergency checklists and procedures.
The Pilot
The final variable in the night flight safety equation is the pilot himself. Subtle shifts in human performance are brought on by darkness. As daylight fades, our natural circadian rhythms predispose us to sleep, and our alertness may decrease substantially. Fatigue and stress conspire against us, further degrading our powers of reason, perception, and concentration.
Another strike against many pilots is the fact that most of their initial training, as well as the lion's share of their recurrent training, is performed during daylight hours. A pilot who maintains night currency by staying in the traffic pattern and performing only the required takeoffs and landings is not prepared to undertake a night cross-country flight, much less handle a night emergency.
Among the subtle nuances of night flight is a reduction in our visual acuity. The decreased partial pressure of oxygen in the air at altitude further degrades night vision, making it more difficult to read instruments and charts or see terrain and other aircraft. Using oxygen at altitudes above 5,000 feet can greatly enhance safety by restoring some of the lost visual acuity. If the aircraft is not equipped with supplemental oxygen, consider investing in a portable system.
Epilogue
According to the preliminary NTSB report, Kennedy's Piper Saratoga started its descent from 5,600 feet some 34 miles from Martha's Vineyard, descending at 700 feet per minute to 2,300 feet. The aircraft banked right, climbed to 2,600 feet, then leveled off for a minute before making a descending left turn for about 30 seconds, and finally rolling to the right and plummeting more than 2,000 feet to the ocean at a descent rate of 4,700 feet per minute.
We'll probably never know exactly what happened, but early evidence suggests that Kennedy succumbed to vertigo. It's important for all pilots to recognize the special hazards of night flight and to be vigilant to prevent such tragedies in the future.
Night Flight Preflight
A thorough preflight is necessary for the safety of any flight, but it takes on additional importance for a night flight. When performing the preflight and runup for a night flight, pay particular attention to the following:
Electrical system. The demands on the electrical system for a night flight are greater than during the day, and the consequences of an electrical failure are more critical. Before departing on a night flight, be certain to check the operation of the electrical system and ensure that it functions properly and can withstand the added load of cockpit, landing, and other lights.
Gyros. During preflight, listen to the gyros to verify that they are operating. Then verify operation of the turn coordinator, directional gyro, and attitude indicator during taxi. Turns on the ground should result in indications on the turn coordinator and directional gyro. The attitude indicator should show no more than a 5-degree bank during turns on the ground.
Compass. Flying proper headings is especially critical to navigation at night when ground references are scarce, so make sure the compass has fluid, isn't leaking (you'll notice the kerosene odor), and swings freely. Be sure a legible compass correction card has been installed.
Navigation and communication equipment. Pilotage can be more demanding at night when fewer references are visible, so plan to back up your pilotage using radio navigation. Be certain that all available VOR, ADF, loran, GPS, and DME units are working, and that you know how to use them. Assistance from air traffic controllers can also be important, so be certain to get a radio check before departure at night.
Fuel. Always carry plenty of fuel for a night flight. The regulations call for a minimum of 45 minutes reserve for VFR flights. That's a bare minimum, not a target. Experienced pilots know to carry at least double that amount for a night flight to cope with unforeseen weather, diversions, and other complications that may arise.
Lights. Properly operating lights are essential on a night flight, so check the navigation lights, beacon, strobes, and cockpit lights as part of the preflight. Also, be certain you know how to operate the cockpit lights before venturing out on a flight that could extend into darkness.
Flashlights. Nothing is more distressing to a pilot than a completely dark cockpit, so carry two or more flashlights on any night flight. The lights should have fresh batteries and be stowed where you can find them immediately using touch alone.
Homework. As part of your preflight, do your homework for the flight. Have a solid navigation plan. For a VFR night flight, examine the charts closely and verify the maximum elevation figures (MEFs) for the entire route. Be sure to plan flight altitudes at least 1,000 feet above the MEFs (2,000 feet above for flights over mountainous terrain) to ensure that you will safely clear any obstacles on the ground.
Backups. Having backup navigation or communication systems is always nice, but it can be especially comforting at night. Consider carrying a handheld transceiver to allow you to communicate with air traffic control in the event of an electrical or radio failure. A handheld GPS can help you find your way in the event of a nighttime electrical failure.
Air traffic control. Plan to let controllers know where you are. Even though it's not required, it's a good idea to file a VFR flight plan for any night trip. It's also a good idea to request radar traffic advisories when possible to ensure that controllers know where you are at all times. In the event of an emergency, you become lost, or even if you begin to feel uncomfortable about the weather or a suspected mechanical problem in the airplane, the calming voice of a helpful controller may be just what you need to get yourself and your passengers to safety.
Dos And Don'ts Of Night Flight
Night flight poses numerous potential hazards and complications beyond those commonly associated with daytime flying. To help minimize the potential risks, always take the following precautions before embarking on a night flight:
- Get a thorough weather briefing. If the weather isn't well within your experience and skill level, don't go. It's a good idea to have a separate set of personal minimums for night flight. While you might feel comfortable flying with at least seven miles visibility during the day, you might be well-served to make your minimums 10 miles or more for a night flight.
- Keep abreast of en route weather changes by using flight watch (122.0 MHz), automated weather services, recorded weather information, and pilot reports. Frequencies can be found on aeronautical charts and in the Airport/Facility Directory.
- If you plan to fly at night, or even if a flight could unintentionally extend beyond sunset, be current for night flight. Beyond the requisite takeoffs and landings, get out of the pattern and practice the skills needed to safely navigate cross-country. Also, practice your emergency and instrument skills at night. Even a short training session can do wonders for your skills and your confidence.
- Plan your night flight thoroughly and carefully. Know your route of flight, and choose a minimum altitude for each segment of flight to keep you legal and safely away from terrain and other hazards. Choose a route that keeps you within radar contact and away from areas where visual cues may be missing or misleading, such as over water or desolate or mountainous terrain.
- Organize your cockpit and have all the information and resources you may need, including several flashlights, readily at hand. Always fly a standard traffic pattern at night to help avoid visual illusions that can put you in a dangerous position. When landing, use all available aids such as visual approach slope indicator (VASI) or precision approach path indicator (PAPI) lights.
- Know your aircraft. Before taking on the demands of night flight, get a thorough checkout in the aircraft and master all emergency procedures. Hedge your bets by completing at least part of the checkout at night.
- Night flight is demanding, so get all the help you can. Have an instructor, second pilot, or experienced passenger ride along to help with the workload. If your airplane has an autopilot, learn how to use it, and make use of it when you are flying at night.
