Engine Failure (Five Fs)
- Fly at best-glide airspeed.
- Find a suitable place to land.
- Fix the problem if possible. (Troubleshoot in the appropriate order.)
- Frequency selection. If time and altitude permit, tune the transponder to 7700 and the radio to the emergency frequency of 121.5. (If you are already in contact with air traffic control, remain on that frequency.)
- Flee the aircraft. Prepare passengers for an emergency landing and follow the checklist to secure the aircraft before touchdown.
It's important to follow these procedures in order as their importance decreases as you go down the list. The lower the altitude at the time of the engine failure, the fewer steps you will have time to accomplish. Make sure that you know how much fuel you have before you take off and how much fuel your aircraft is burning to avoid the most common cause of engine failure-fuel exhaustion.
Lost Procedures (Four Cs)
- Climb for a better view, improved communication and navigation reception, and terrain avoidance.
- Communicate by calling the nearest flight service station on 122.2. If the equipment is available, you may be able to get a direction-finding steer to a known point. If you can't raise flight service, try calling the nearest control tower, center, or approach control. For frequencies, check the chart in the vicinity of your last known position. If that fails, switch to the emergency radio frequency (121.5) and transponder code (7700).
- Confess to air traffic control that you are lost and need help.
- Comply with the controller's instructions. ATC wants to get you home.
You can reduce your chances of getting lost in the first place by using flight following when it is available, monitoring checkpoints no more than 25 miles apart, keeping navigation aids such as VORs tuned in, and maintaining good situational awareness.
Electrical Problems
If the red over-voltage light on the panel illuminates, turn the master switch off and on again. If that doesn't solve the problem, you may have an alternator malfunction. This means that only the battery is supplying electricity to the airplane. (You will also see a discharge on the ammeter.) When the battery is drained, you can expect a total electrical failure. To prolong battery life, reduce the electrical load by turning off any unneeded equipment, such as radios, lights, and navigation tools. Inform air traffic control that you are having electrical problems and select an appropriate airport at which to land. By turning off the radios when you are not using them, you may be able to conserve enough energy to allow you to communicate when it's most critical, such as during approach and landing.
An electrical failure, even a total failure, is not necessarily an emergency if it's handled correctly. The airplane and engine do not need the battery and alternator to work. It's important to remember that the airplane will keep flying and that you need to remain calm and fly it. Without electrical power, however, you may lose use of your landing gear, flaps, turn coordinator, radios, transponder, lights, and other equipment. Of these things, however, only landing gear is vital to a safe landing, and it can be lowered manually.
Plan to land at the first airport where it is practical. This does not have to be the nearest airport. If the weather is good, you may want to go where the airplane can be fixed, rather than land at a closer airport with no services.
Loss Of Communications
It's possible to lose your radios without losing electrical power. If this happens, start by changing radios if you have more than one, and make sure that the communication panel is properly configured. (For instance, be sure that if you have tuned in your first radio you are listening to Com 1 and not Com 2 or Nav 1.) Also make sure that you don't have a stuck microphone.
Squawk 7600, the lost communications code, on your transponder. If your destination is a nontowered airport and the weather is good, continue as planned. Assume that no one can see or hear you and keep a sharp eye out for traffic, especially as you enter the pattern. Although you must assume that you can't be heard, transmit position reports frequently. It is possible that you are transmitting but can't receive.
If your destination is an airport in Class B, C, or D airspace and you have already been cleared into the airspace, continue to your destination, observe traffic, enter the pattern, and look for a steady green light from the control tower, signaling that you are cleared to land. If you have not been cleared into controlled airspace, particularly at a Class B or Class C airport, stay out of that airspace unless you have no choice. Try to find a nontowered or Class D airport at which to land.
If you opt to land at a Class D airport, remain outside or above the Class D airspace until you have determined which way traffic is flowing. Then join the traffic pattern and look for a light signal. It may be a good idea to keep a list of the signals handy when you fly.
Adverse Weather
- Turbulence: Turbulence is rarely a dangerous situation. If it is severe or extreme, such as turbulence associated with a thunderstorm, it can cause structural problems or stalling. If you encounter turbulence, slow to maneuvering speed (VA). Air traffic control may be able to help you find smoother air.
- Rain: As with turbulence, rain is rarely dangerous in and of itself. It may, however, be a warning sign of impending dangerous conditions such as low visibility or thunderstorms. Be sure that you have the latest weather reports for your area so that you don't inadvertently fly into dangerous conditions.
- Mountain Obscuration: Mountain obscuration is extremely dangerous for the VFR pilot and is a serious consideration for the IFR pilot as well. If you hear these words during your preflight weather briefing, file IFR if you are rated or plan to stay on the ground. The fact that you can't see mountains is dangerous enough, but downdrafts, which may accompany mountain obscuration, can add to the risk level.
- Icing: Visible moisture at low temperatures can indicate the possibility of icing. Ice that forms on the aircraft's wings, control surfaces, and elsewhere adds weight, changes the shape of the airfoil, and can interfere with control surfaces. All of these conditions are potentially disastrous.
If your aircraft is equipped with pitot heat, turn it on when the temperature falls below 5 degrees Celsius, especially if there is a lot of moisture in the air. You may also want to apply carburetor heat. Carburetor ice can cause the engine to run rough or even stop and can be difficult to predict.
If you do begin to pick up airframe ice, contact air traffic control and request a warmer altitude. Remember that warmer air could be at a higher altitude, and you may be asked to climb.
Collision Avoidance
When you are flying VFR, it's a good idea to spend about three times as much time looking outside the cockpit as you spend looking inside it (an average of 15 seconds outside for every five seconds inside). As you scan for other aircraft, start by looking over your left shoulder and move slowly toward your right shoulder. Move your view at 10-degree intervals and pause for about a second at each interval, scanning up and down.
Be especially careful before turning, and be sure to perform clearing turns before starting any maneuver. Know your aircraft's particular blind spots, and take special care for hazards in those areas.
Poor weather, haze, smoke, dust, snow, or rain can severely reduce visibility, even during the daytime. Anytime there are limitations to visibility such as these, pay special attention to the view outside. If another aircraft is approaching, you won't spot it until it is closer, giving both pilots less time to react than when visibility is good.
At night, the eyes are subject to illusions that may cause disorientation or make it harder for you to spot other aircraft. Start any night flight by properly adapting your eyes to the darkness, avoiding bright, white lights for 30 minutes before departure. Also remember that you will need to scan differently at night to allow for off-center viewing.
Wake Turbulence Avoidance
If you are departing behind a large aircraft, it's a good idea to wait a minute or two before takeoff, especially on a calm day when the lack of wind will allow vortices from the aircraft's wake to linger near the runway. Once you're ready to go, it's important that you rotate before you reach the larger airplane's rotation point on the runway. Climb above and remain upwind of the path of the larger aircraft. If you are taking off behind a larger aircraft that has just landed, you'll want to rotate beyond its touchdown point.
If you are landing behind a larger airplane that has just taken off, try to land before the other aircraft's rotation point. If you are landing behind a large airplane that has just landed, you'll want to stay above it's final approach path, land beyond its touchdown point, and try to stay upwind.
Unintended Flight Into Clouds
Few things are more frightening than seeing the world suddenly turn white after you have unintentionally flown into a cloud. As a VFR pilot, the most important things you can do are remain in control of the airplane and go back the way you came.
Start by monitoring your attitude indicator, making sure that the wings and nose are level. Avoid abrupt maneuvers. Once your attitude is stable, note your heading
Next, slowly roll into a standard-rate turn to the reciprocal of your initial heading (a 180-degree turn). You are in a standard-rate turn when the lower wing of the miniature airplane on your turn coordinator is aligned with the bottom tick mark on the turn coordinator.
When you have turned 180 degrees-it should take one minute-level the wings using the attitude indicator. Fly this heading while monitoring the attitude indicator and airspeed. If you are not out of the clouds immediately, call air traffic control on the emergency frequency (121.5) and ask for help.
Continuing VFR flight into instrument weather conditions is one of the leading causes of general aviation accidents. Remember that it is easier to accidentally fly into a cloud at night.
Unusual Attitudes In IMC
If you do unintentionally fly into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), you could quickly find yourself in an unusual attitude. It's vital that you know how to recover quickly and safely.
Look at the attitude indicator to determine the airplane's pitch and bank. Then look at the airspeed indicator making sure that you are not approaching stall speed at one extreme or never exceed speed (VNE) at the other.
If you are climbing and your airspeed is decreasing, simultaneously level the wings and lower the nose to a level-flight attitude while adding full power. If you are descending and airspeed is building, simultaneously reduce power to idle while leveling the wings. Then raise the nose to a level attitude. Use the attitude indicator or turn coordinator to determine the direction of turn and help you level the wings.
Remember that if the nose is low, you want to reduce power as you level the wings to reduce the chances of reaching never exceed speed or over-stressing the airframe as you raise the nose.
Spins
To recover from a spin, pull the power to idle and apply full rudder in the opposite direction of the spin until the aircraft stops turning. Simultaneously neutralize the ailerons and move the yoke forward briskly to break the stall. Then recover from the resulting dive by slowly pulling the nose up to level-flight attitude and adding power. Remember not to pull up too fast because you don't want to create extreme G forces on the airplane.
The prospect of getting into a spin terrifies many pilots. While no one wants to end up in an inadvertent spin, you can get training to ensure that you will be ready to respond if it ever happens. Whether you're a student or you already have your certificate, consider taking some spin training with a qualified instructor in an appropriate airplane. Experiencing the real thing and practicing recoveries can give you the confidence you need to respond correctly.
Low Oil Pressure
If a drop in indicated oil pressure is combined with a normal oil temperature reading, it is very likely that the oil pressure gauge is malfunctioning. Simply land at the nearest airport and have a mechanic investigate the problem.
If a drop in oil pressure is combined with a high oil temperature reading, chances are good that you are experiencing an oil leak. Engine failure could be imminent. Reduce power immediately and select a suitable place to land. It's important to use minimum power to reach the landing site.
Of course, no general prescription for remedying in-flight problems can cover every situation. It is vital that you understand the aircraft you fly, including its limitations and emergency procedures. As with any activity involving specialized skills, the ability to fly an airplane safely under a wide variety of circumstances comes from experience and practice reinforced by practical and theoretical training. Don't wait for your required biennial flight review to spend some time reviewing safety procedures with an instructor.
