Even if the instrument rating does not top your to-do list, some knowledge of basic instrument procedures still can be very useful. It's just a matter of time before you hear that an airplane is "holding." Whether it's a for-real hold issued by ATC or a practice hold directed by a flight instructor, it's helpful to know what that airplane is doing--especially if you're flying nearby.
If the pilot is a new instrument student, you can bet that he or she is anxious. Student anxiety increases when holding procedures are introduced. Believe me, that reaction can be avoided.
Please realize that there are many ways to perform most flying tasks. In fact, if you ask 10 pilots how to do something, you'll usually get 12 opinions. To nullify that, I rely on my training philosophy of maximum confidence and minimum workload, which in part mandates procedures that will work in the worst situation that a pilot will encounter.
For holding, that means a missed approach with its high workload: You must establish the climb, retract the landing gear and flaps, reset a navigation radio in many cases, and contact ATC while you keep your eyes on the flight instruments. If you're unable to contact ATC because of frequency congestion or you are told to hold as published because of ATC workload, you're faced with a quick and dirty holding situation. What I'm about to explain makes that--or any other holding assignment--simple to execute.
Figure 1 depicts a holding pattern in the true sense. You track an assigned course from where the airplane is depicted to the holding fix using a VOR or GPS receiver for course guidance; you then move back to that point and repeat that process until the hold is terminated. Obviously, aircraft can't move backwards, so upon reaching the fix, you turn in the required direction, left or right, and fly Figure 2's racetrack pattern.
Visualizing the assigned course and holding pattern are your first priority, and you do that on the heading indicator's compass card. This is absolutely the most important step. Secondary tasks are required, but you must ignore them until you can quickly visualize the assigned course and holding pattern on the heading indicator.
To understand the visualization procedure, refer to figures 3, 4, and 5. For the time being, ignore the dashed lines and concentrate on just the holding patterns.
In Figure 3, you've been asked to hold on a VOR's 240-degree radial, right turns. The numbers on the compass card represent the VOR's radials or your course in figures 1 and 2. Visualize flying inbound to the fix on that radial--the assigned holding course--the right turn at the VOR, and the holding pattern.
In Figure 4 (p.38), you've been asked to hold on a VOR's 330-degree radial, right turns. 330 represents your inbound course. Visualize flying inbound to the fix on that radial, the right turn at the VOR, and the holding pattern. Do the same for the 090-degree radial in Figure 5.
When you can visualize the holding pattern on the heading indicator, stop thinking about holding until you are flying directly to the holding fix. You are now at the bottom of the heading indicator tracking a direct course to the fix.
To determine the entry procedure, ask yourself what would require the least workload--minimum maneuvering--after you reach the fix. Figures 3, 4, and 5's dashed lines illustrate typical entries. In Figure 3, a right turn to the holding pattern's outbound leg is called a direct entry. In Figure 4, a left turn to parallel the holding course is called a parallel entry. And in Figure 5, a right turn that diverges from the holding course by 30 degrees is called a teardrop entry.
Years ago you had to be within 5 degrees of the correct entry procedure--direct, parallel, or teardrop--to pass an instrument checkride. Fortunately, that requirement was dropped. Just use common sense and perform an entry that requires the least workload.
After you cross the holding fix and complete your first turn, fly for approximately one minute; that's a good time to make the required ATC holding report: position, the time you reached the fix (only the minutes past the hour), your altitude, and holding. For example, "Cessna Seven-Niner-Tango, Seal Beach [VOR], one seven [minutes past the hour], 3,000 [feet], holding."
Position reports seem like a lost art to many pilots today--after all, they're normally not required when operating in an area with radar coverage. However, instrument pilots are responsible for knowing nonradar procedures--and following them, when necessary. That's why many rules seem out of place in today's radar environment. When crossing a holding fix, pilots are required by the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) to report time and altitude. However, you must tell the controller where you are and what you are doing, so a typical report, which most pilots do not follow, would be: "Cleveland Center, Cessna Six-Seven-Tango-Charlie, Akron, 53, 8,000, holding."
The heading you choose for that first turn and the subsequent one-minute leg should be adjusted for wind conditions. Estimating wind corrections is not rocket science. In figures 4 and 5, assume that the wind was 360 at 20 knots. Guesstimate your true airspeed (indicated airspeed plus 2 percent per thousand feet of altitude). If it's about 110 kt, you're close to 120 kt or 2 miles per minute, so divide the wind velocity by 2--which gives you an approximate wind correction angle of 10 degrees if a direct crosswind exists. Otherwise, use a lesser angle that's based on common sense.
In Figure 3, you would cross the fix, turn right toward a 240-degree heading, but roll out on a heading of about 245 degrees because of the quartering tailwind. Workload is reduced when you apply a wind correction to the entry leg. Now, fly for 50 seconds or so after you pass abeam the VOR, during which time you'll reset your OBS to the 060-degree inbound course and, if necessary, make your ATC report. When time is up, turn right, intercept the 240-degree radial--the assigned holding course--and track it to the fix.
Why should you fly for less than the standard one minute when flying outbound? Because you now have a slight tailwind component which will become a headwind component on the inbound leg. You should stay within approximately one minute of the fix if holding at or below 14,000 feet.
In Figure 4, you would cross the fix, turn left toward a 330-degree heading, but roll out on a heading of about 335 degrees due to the quartering headwind. Now, fly for a minute and 10 or 15 seconds, during which time you'll reset your OBS to the 150-degree inbound course and make your ATC report. When time is up, turn left, intercept the 330-degree radial, and track it to the fix.
Why should you fly for more than a minute? Because of the inbound leg's tailwind component. You want at least one minute to establish the proper wind correction angle after you intercept the inbound leg, particularly with this high-workload parallel entry.
In Figure 5, you would cross the fix, turn right toward a 060-degree heading--a 30 degree offset from the holding course--but roll out on a 050-degree heading due to the almost direct crosswind. Now, fly for one minute, during which time you'll reset your OBS to the 270-degree inbound course and make your ATC report. When time is up, turn right, intercept the 090-degree radial, and track it to the fix.
Now, fly the holding pattern. With respect to time, you are expected to adjust the outbound leg time so that the inbound leg time is one minute.
The AIM tells you to triple the inbound leg's wind correction angle when flying the outbound leg. A few years ago, the AIM said to double that angle, and that's what most pilots did for years and still do during the first pattern--the correction is fine-tuned during the second pattern. The triple correction is correct only when you have a direct crosswind, which is seldom the case.
The AIM requires you to reduce to holding airspeed when within three minutes of the holding fix. That's to ensure that you are below the maximum authorized holding speeds, which are well above the cruise speed of most light airplanes. Don't be misled by that fact. The minute you receive holding instructors, tell ATC that you want to reduce to holding speed. (You must report changes in true airspeed that exceed 10 kt from that listed on your flight plan.) When approved, reduce power to long-range cruise to avoid burning excess fuel and compromising your fuel reserves.
When ATC clears you to depart the holding pattern, you must report that fact. All you need to say is, "Cessna Seven-Niner-Tango departing Seal Beach."
If delays such as holding or delay vectors--frequently used by ATC in lieu of holding--cause your arrival fuel load to be near the 45-minute IFR reserve fuel requirement, immediately use this important option: Advise ATC that you have minimum fuel. This indicates that you are not declaring an emergency, but upon reaching your destination you can accept little or no delay.
ATC holding instructions always include an expected further clearance time. That time is never guaranteed, and it is frequently extended. If that occurs and fuel is tight, don't hope that things will work out. Get an IFR clearance to a nearby airport and fill your tanks.
The examples I have given involve a VOR hold. What about an intersection hold? Pretend that the intersection is a VOR. Determine the radial that you will be holding on and visualize the holding pattern on the heading indicator. It's that simple.
Ralph Butcher, a retired United Airlines captain, is the chief flight instructor at a California flight school. He has been flying since 1959 and has 25,000 hours in fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft. Visit his Web site.
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